Demographic and Economic Growth
A. A New Demographic Era
1. Popular Growth:(1730-1800) 50% population increase
2. Falling Death Rate: rise in the birthrate due to more stable and improved food supply but vulnerable to disease like TB, typhoid, malaria)
B. Profit Inflation: The Movement of Prices - growth from 1730-1850 = inflation from pressures of the population, demand for food, land, goods, and employment
1. Impacts: France (1726-1789) 65% increase in inflation led to movement to cities
C. ProIndustrialization- economic development before the rise of the factory/ rise of rural manufacturing under the putting out system where merchants employed labor- strengthened marketing networks, spurred capital accumulation reinvested in production, generated additional revenue for needy + increased the need for products amd services = familiarized industry and loosened marriage and birth migration
The New Shape of Industry- development of more efficient tools and machines and the exploitation of new sources of energy to drive these machines
A. Toward a New Economic Orderperformance- measured by output, total product and the amount produced per individual in the community structure- all those characteristics of a society that support or affect performance
1. Impediments to Economic Innovation- obstacle of small European markets: cut off from one another, highly skewed distribution of wealth serving the wealthy few, property rights and privledges, guilds and regulations, government exploitation (monopolies and purchasing noble titles)
2.Adam Smith- An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) money did not constitute wealth but added value in manufacturing items produced by the combination of invested capital and labor *progress required individuals self interst *a natural division of labor *laissez-faire 1786 French and British free-trade treaty lowered protective tariffs > decrease of guilds and 1791 French abolishment of guilds
B. The Roots of Economic Transformation in England- small, productive land and sea, new canals and turnpikes with few obstructions, high standard of living
1. British Financial Managment- skillful managment of money by both individuals and public institutions>reinvestment, British Banking: Bank of England (1694)= debt, shares, interest payment, and government revenue (money and power = confidence and investment)
C. Cotton: The Beginning of Industrialization- demand for cheap good> cotton mass consumption because it is durable, washable, versatile, and cheaper, limited labor supply and worker control
1. Machines and Factories- *1730s fly shuttle- larger faster handlooms *Richard Arkwright's water frame drew cotton fibers through to twist *1784 Edmund Cartwright power driven loom
Innovation and Tradition in Agriculture- England (1700) 80% agricultural population > 40%
A. Convertable Husbandry- fallowing (letting certain fields lie without crops for awhile to replenish nutrients in the soil...necessary but not very efficient) replaced by livestock manure ex. Jethro Tull > soil managment and livestock breeding
B. The Enclosure Movement in Britain - replaced the open field system(contiguous strips), Acts of Parliament from landowner petitions enclosed property= high rents and returns ex (1800-1810) 906 acts
1. Impact- redistribution deprived the poor, labor intensive, and appearance changed
C.Serfs and Peasants on the Continent
1. Lords and Serfs in Eastern Europe- servitude ensured the lord labor while peasants were given access to land
2. Lords and Peasants in Western Europe- French, German, Spanish, Italian- seigneuralism// (peasants owed lords dues on land, relied on tradition to pay debts)
3. Peasant Survival Strategies- obliged to rent additional plots or sharecrop, hated the change of small plots to large farms
4. The Family Economy- women in cottage and men outside, common lands(vacant pasture)
5. Limits of Agrarian Change on the Continent- dense settlement and high food prices encouraged innovation
I. The Progress of Industrialization
-Elements of growth—new inventions, demand for more capital, factory organization, more efficient transportation, and increased consumption—stimulated each other and thus led to further control
A. The Technology to Support Machines
-Industrialization required the efficient use of raw materials, beginning with cheap metals, such as iron, which could be formed into machines, and cheap fuel, such as coal
1. Coal and Iron
-Smelting iron with coke (a purified form of coal) to produce pig iron, made iron that could be cast but not worked or machined
-1780s: the puddling process, the first commercially feasible effort to purify iron-using coke alone
-John Wilkinson was convinced that iron would be the building material of a new age
-His techniques for boring cylinders made it possible to make better cannons and steam engines
-He built the first iron bridge over the Severn River in 1779
2. The Steam Engine
-In the seventeenth century several scientists proved that the atmosphere had weight
-Experiments construction of an “atmosphere engine” which required creating a partial vacuum, and before the end of the seventeenth century, atmospheric machines using the condensation of steam to create the needed vacuum were being designed both in England and on the Continent
-Commercially successful atmospheric engine was invented in England by Thomas Savery (published a book called The Miner’s Friend in 1702)
-Thomas Newcomen returned to the piston and cylinder design, which completely separated engine and pump and proved a third more efficient
-Used in Great Britain, France, Denmark, Austria, and Hungary
-James Watt worked in the University of Glaslow
-Recognized the enormous potential in the direct pressure created when expanding steam pushed against a piston
-Patented it in 1782
-Practical model: the steam engine
-Watt’s partner, Matthew Bolton, recognized the demand for cheap power had become more critical with the new inventions in the textile industry (including Arkwright’s water frame, Crompton’s spinning mule, and Cartwright’s power loom).
B. The Economic Effects of Revolution and War
-Economic growth on the Continent where the exploitation of resources became more systematic, population increased, transportation generally improved, the means of mobilizing capital for investment expanded, and more and more political and business leaders were concerned with speeding industrial growth
-Land tenure was no longer the most pressing economic and social issues
-The abolition of guilds and old commercial restrictions had eliminated some obstacles to the free movement of workers and the establishment of new enterprises
-Napoleonic Code and French commercial law favored free contracts and an open marketplace but also introduced the advantages of uniform and clear commercial regulations
-Governments were burdened with heavy debts, and retuning soldiers had to find ways to support themselves in a changed economy
-Continental System, which had initially swung production and trade in France’s favor, had collapsed with Napoleon’s fall, bringing down many of the enterprises that it had artificially sustained
C. Patterns of Industrialization
1. Cotton: The Leading Sector
-By 1830, Britain was importing 366 million pounds of raw cotton
-Price of cotton yarn fell to about one-twentieth of what it had been in the 1760s
-Lancashire became the center of a booming cotton cloth industry and Manchester became the cotton capital of the world
2. Railroads
-First successful steam railway line was built in England in 1825
-1830: first passenger line
-Railroads bought huge quantities of coal and of iron for rails
-Carried food and raw materials to cities, manufactured products to consumers, and building materials and fertilizers to the countryside
3. National Differences
-1850s the zone of industrialization had narrowed to include only northeastern France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, western Germany, and northern Italy
-Eastern Europe remained a world of agricultural estates
-Holland built on its tradition of technological skill, its geographical advantages as a trade center accessible by water, and its excellent supplies of coal to become the Continent’s first industrialized nation
-Belgium was the first country to complete a railway network
-Finance became so internationally linked that the Bank of France granted an emergency loan to the Bank of England in 1825
-The domestic banking policies of the United States in response to a financial panic in 1837, led t a wave of crises in the financial centers of Europe
4. State Politics
-Routes, rates, and even the gauge of track became political matters to be settled by parliaments or special commissions
-Tariffs, the dominant issue in British politics in the 1840s, became a critical question in every country
-In 1846, Britain abolished the tariff on imported grain, known as the Corn Laws
-Nation sided with those who favored trade and a lower price for bread rather than with the landowners, who benefited from higher, protected grain prices
-Important to economic development was the role of government in banking and currency
-Parliament required companies to register with the government and publish their annual budget as a guide to investors
-Assurance required new legislation establishing limited liability and encouraging the formation of corporations, and every major country passed such measures
5. The Role of Government
-Services, usually provided by private companies, had to be subsidized, regulated, and given legal protection by the government
-State’s often had full ownership of companies
-Effective government, by subsidizing ports, transportation, and new inventions, by registering patents and sponsoring education, by encouraging investment and enforcing contracts, and by maintaining order and preventing strikes
6. The Crystal Palace
-1851: first international industrial exhibition; specially designed pavilion was built in London, called the Crystal Palace
-Russia displayed primarily raw materials; Austria showed mainly luxurious handicrafts (as did the German Zollverein and the Italian states)
-By 1850 Great Britain was the wealthiest nation in history and over the next 20 years it would continue to increase its lead in goods produced
II. The Social Effects
-Child labor, tyrannical foreman, teeming slums, and unemployment brought new social problems and required new social policies as the growing prosperity and security of the middle class contrasted all the more sharply with the destitution of the urban poor
A. The Division of Labor
-Textile factories required an investment in buildings, machinery, and raw materials far beyond the reach of most weavers and production per worker increased more than a thousand fold with the factory’s efficient organization and power-driven machinery
-Those who came to work in a factory might be former weavers, but were likely to be less skilled laborers (often migrants) driven by poverty
1. Factory Life
-To maintain the discipline that efficient production demanded, foremen used fines for lateness, for slacking off, for flawed work, talking, singing, or whistling
-Law finally passed in England in 1847 that limited the workday to ten hours
-Legislation hesitantly restricted hours and set some stands of hygiene and safety
2. Differentiation
-Sociologists use the term differentiation to describe the spread of specialization among groups and institutions that was a characteristic of the nineteenth century
-Money exchange and legal contracts differentiated economic from personal or social relationships
-Business affairs and governmental functions became more specialized matters determined by calculation or regulation rather than social status
-Britain left many public matters to local governments and private groups
-France: the role of national government increased
-German states tended to combine centralizing bureaucracies with considerable local autonomy
-Increase in professionalization everywhere
B. The Family
1. Traditional Roles
-Law and custom might require equal division of inheritance (as in France), primogeniture, or other more complicated arrangements
-Women usually handled household chores and the smaller animals, the men were responsible for the heavier work, and everyone worked together in critical periods of planting and harvest
2. The Impact of Industrialization
-For artisans as well as peasants, the family was often the unit of production
-Small workshops had long tended to exclude women
-Strain on the family in the industrial age came rather from the lack of housing, the conditions work, and the need for cash, which was compounded by the risk of unemployment
-Socialist: Friederich Engels
-Yet among workers, too, the family survived and the home remained a special place expected to provide protection for small children, a haven for wage earners, and temporary shelter for relatives come to see a job
3. Middle Class Women
-The fact than women worked for pay may also have slowly lessened their domestic subordination
-Women were as important as and frequently more visible than men in operating small shops
-Contempory French historian: Jules Michelet
-Victorian England gentlemen met in their clubs or withdrew from their ladies after dinner
4. Moral Seriousness
-Motherhood was treated as an honored occupation, fondly depicted in novels and new women’s magazines like the Parisian Journal des Femmes of 1832
-Age of distrust of sexual passion
-1818: Thomas Bowdler produced his Family Shakespeare that was more “appropriate” (lacked language or sexual connotations)
-Waltz was denounced in the Ladies Pocket Book of Etiquette in 1840
-Conventional
-Prudery was an effort to bend society to the self-discipline on which morality was thought to rest
I. Economic Transformations
A. The Second Industrial Revolution
1. New Technologies
-Thomas Edison’s incandescent light bulb, developed in the 1870s, was quickly followed by central power stations to distribute power over a wide area, including public lighting in New York and London in 1882 and in Berlin a few years later
-Steam turbine, show in the 1880s to be more efficient than the steam engine, was soon widely employed in ships and factories fueled by oil as well as coal
-1900 the manufacture of generators, cables, and motors were an important new industry in itself and allowed greater and cheaper production in other fields
-Telephone was invented in 1876 and became a business necessity, establishing private convenience within a few decades
-New chemical processes and synthetics led to improved products ranging from dyes, textiles, and paints to fertilizers and explosives
-Many new products in the consumer market responded to the growing purchasing power of the masses
-The automobile in the 1890s, the airplane in the 1900s and the radio a decade later were all greeted with enthusiasm and heightened mass expectation that technological progress would continue to improve every day life
-The Bessemer converter developed in the 1860s permitted far higher temperatures in smelter furnaces, and subsequent discoveries made it profitable to use lower-grade ores
-British, German, and French maritime shipping depended on faster and larger steamships
2. Germany’s Economic Growth
-Germany roads provided excellent communications; its famous educational system produced ample numbers of the administrators and engineers the commercial sector now created
-German factories employed the latest and most efficient equipment obtaining the necessary capital through a modern banking structure
-Plants were far bigger than anyone else’s and firms engaged in the various stages of production often combined in huge cartels that dominated an entire sector of industry, from raw material to finished product
3. Old Industrial Economies
-British decline was because plants and equipment were old and owners hesitated to undertake the cost of modernizing or replacing them
-Well-established firms often made it hard for new companies to get a start
-Without technical secondary schools like those of Germany and France, English schooling remained weak in technical subjects and provided opportunity for social mobility than on the Continent
4. The Spread of Industrialization
-Industrialization no longer depended so directly on the possession of critical resources like coal and iron ore but could be accomplished with foreign investment and imported technology
5. Agriculture
-Percentage of the population that made its living in agriculture continued to decline
-In France, the Netherlands, and Sweden agriculture continued to play a larger role in the economy
-Wider use of machinery and chemical fertilizers increased the capital investment required for farming, and improved transportation intensified international competition
-Britain now imported almost all its grain
-In the face of recurrent agriculture crises, the most common response was protective tariffs, which were raised in France, Germany, Austria, Russia, Italy, and Spain
-New tariffs were soon extended to manufacture goods as well, reversing the trend toward liberal policies that had favored free trade from the 1830s to the 1870s
6. The Long Depression
-1870s to 1896, prices, interests rates, and profits fell with far reaching effects
-One part of the economy soared while another declined
-Handicraft industries were forced out of business, as well as numerous smaller and less efficient industrial firms
-Great boom in railroad building ended, and governments had to save socially or politically important lines deserted by bankrupt companies
-Many industrialists welcomed the support governments could give through tariffs, state spending, and colonial policies
-Economic life centered on great factories owned by large corporations (and closely tied to banks and government) that employed hundreds or ever thousands of workers who, in turn, increasingly organized into industrial labor unions
B. Urbanization and Demographic Change
1. The Demographic Transition: Declining Rates of Mortality and Fertility
-Population increased because mortality rates were falling still more rapidly
-This pattern of declining birthrate accompanied by a more rapidly falling mortality rate, which is called the demographic transition
-Death rates initially declined because of lower infant mortality rates, a result of improved sanitation, better diet, and the virtual elimination of diseases such as cholera and typhus
II. Understandings of Nature and Society
A. The Conquests of Science
1. Biology: The Darwinian Revolution
-Darwin’s “On the Origin of Species” published in 1859
-He first formulated of his concept of natural selection in 1838, but not until Alfred R. Wallace independently developed a similar theory could Darwin be persuaded to publish his findings
-Darwin established that the variety of species is potentially infinite, rejecting the classical and Christian ideas of immutable forms in nature, and argued that there is an almost constant modification of species, each tested in the universal struggle for existence
-Evidence for evolution but described its mechanism: only those well adapted to their environment survived to reproduce, as their progeny would after them
2. Medicine
-1860s the discoveries of Louis Pasteur in France led to the techniques for destroying germs called pasteurization which were of crucial importance to the wine, dairy, and silk industries
-Pasteur also developed a preventive vaccine against rabies
-In England, Joseph Lister discovered that germs could be killed by carbolic acid, and the application of that knowledge made surgery a reasonable remedy rather than a desperate gamble
-Robert Koch in Germany showed that different diseases were caused by distinct microbes, discovered the microorganism responsible for tuberculosis, and opened the way to new techniques in bacteriology and in the battle against communicable disease
3. Physics and Chemistry
-The fundamental generalization of chemistry are contained in the periodic law and periodic table published by Dmitry Mendeleev in 1869
-Thermodynamics the study of the relationship between heat and mechanical energy, became the core of nineteenth-century physics
-Two fundamental laws of thermodynamics
One states the principle o the conservation of energy: energy can be transformed into heat or work but can be neither created nor destroyed, and heat or work can be transformed into energy
-Other law declares that any closed physical system tends towards equilibrium, a system in which heat becomes uniformly distributed and which therefore cannot be used to produce work
-Study of magnetism was the work of Michael Faraday
-1830s and 1840s realized than tines of magnetic force are analogous to gravity and that magnetic fields induce electric currents, allowing for creation of the electric generator
-1873, James Clerk Maxwell published equations that described the behavior of electricity, magnetism, and light in terms of a single, universal system
-Thermodynamics led to the development of more efficient sources of power
A. A New Demographic Era
1. Popular Growth:(1730-1800) 50% population increase
2. Falling Death Rate: rise in the birthrate due to more stable and improved food supply but vulnerable to disease like TB, typhoid, malaria)
B. Profit Inflation: The Movement of Prices - growth from 1730-1850 = inflation from pressures of the population, demand for food, land, goods, and employment
1. Impacts: France (1726-1789) 65% increase in inflation led to movement to cities
C. ProIndustrialization- economic development before the rise of the factory/ rise of rural manufacturing under the putting out system where merchants employed labor- strengthened marketing networks, spurred capital accumulation reinvested in production, generated additional revenue for needy + increased the need for products amd services = familiarized industry and loosened marriage and birth migration
The New Shape of Industry- development of more efficient tools and machines and the exploitation of new sources of energy to drive these machines
A. Toward a New Economic Order performance- measured by output, total product and the amount produced per individual in the community structure- all those characteristics of a society that support or affect performance
1. Impediments to Economic Innovation- obstacle of small European markets: cut off from one another, highly skewed distribution of wealth serving the wealthy few, property rights and privledges, guilds and regulations, government exploitation (monopolies and purchasing noble titles)
2.Adam Smith- An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) money did not constitute wealth but added value in manufacturing items produced by the combination of invested capital and labor *progress required individuals self interst *a natural division of labor *laissez-faire 1786 French and British free-trade treaty lowered protective tariffs > decrease of guilds and 1791 French abolishment of guilds
B. The Roots of Economic Transformation in England- small, productive land and sea, new canals and turnpikes with few obstructions, high standard of living
1. British Financial Managment- skillful managment of money by both individuals and public institutions>reinvestment, British Banking: Bank of England (1694)= debt, shares, interest payment, and government revenue (money and power = confidence and investment)
C. Cotton: The Beginning of Industrialization- demand for cheap good> cotton mass consumption because it is durable, washable, versatile, and cheaper, limited labor supply and worker control
1. Machines and Factories- *1730s fly shuttle- larger faster handlooms *Richard Arkwright's water frame drew cotton fibers through to twist *1784 Edmund Cartwright power driven loom
Innovation and Tradition in Agriculture- England (1700) 80% agricultural population > 40%
A. Convertable Husbandry- fallowing (letting certain fields lie without crops for awhile to replenish nutrients in the soil...necessary but not very efficient) replaced by livestock manure ex. Jethro Tull > soil managment and livestock breeding
B. The Enclosure Movement in Britain - replaced the open field system(contiguous strips), Acts of Parliament from landowner petitions enclosed property= high rents and returns ex (1800-1810) 906 acts
1. Impact- redistribution deprived the poor, labor intensive, and appearance changed
C.Serfs and Peasants on the Continent
1. Lords and Serfs in Eastern Europe- servitude ensured the lord labor while peasants were given access to land
2. Lords and Peasants in Western Europe- French, German, Spanish, Italian- seigneuralism// (peasants owed lords dues on land, relied on tradition to pay debts)
3. Peasant Survival Strategies- obliged to rent additional plots or sharecrop, hated the change of small plots to large farms
4. The Family Economy- women in cottage and men outside, common lands(vacant pasture)
5. Limits of Agrarian Change on the Continent- dense settlement and high food prices encouraged innovation
I. The Progress of Industrialization
-Elements of growth—new inventions, demand for more capital, factory organization, more efficient transportation, and increased consumption—stimulated each other and thus led to further control
A. The Technology to Support Machines
-Industrialization required the efficient use of raw materials, beginning with cheap metals, such as iron, which could be formed into machines, and cheap fuel, such as coal
1. Coal and Iron
-Smelting iron with coke (a purified form of coal) to produce pig iron, made iron that could be cast but not worked or machined
-1780s: the puddling process, the first commercially feasible effort to purify iron-using coke alone
-John Wilkinson was convinced that iron would be the building material of a new age
-His techniques for boring cylinders made it possible to make better cannons and steam engines
-He built the first iron bridge over the Severn River in 1779
2. The Steam Engine
-In the seventeenth century several scientists proved that the atmosphere had weight
-Experiments construction of an “atmosphere engine” which required creating a partial vacuum, and before the end of the seventeenth century, atmospheric machines using the condensation of steam to create the needed vacuum were being designed both in England and on the Continent
-Commercially successful atmospheric engine was invented in England by Thomas Savery (published a book called The Miner’s Friend in 1702)
-Thomas Newcomen returned to the piston and cylinder design, which completely separated engine and pump and proved a third more efficient
-Used in Great Britain, France, Denmark, Austria, and Hungary
-James Watt worked in the University of Glaslow
-Recognized the enormous potential in the direct pressure created when expanding steam pushed against a piston
-Patented it in 1782
-Practical model: the steam engine
-Watt’s partner, Matthew Bolton, recognized the demand for cheap power had become more critical with the new inventions in the textile industry (including Arkwright’s water frame, Crompton’s spinning mule, and Cartwright’s power loom).
B. The Economic Effects of Revolution and War
-Economic growth on the Continent where the exploitation of resources became more systematic, population increased, transportation generally improved, the means of mobilizing capital for investment expanded, and more and more political and business leaders were concerned with speeding industrial growth
-Land tenure was no longer the most pressing economic and social issues
-The abolition of guilds and old commercial restrictions had eliminated some obstacles to the free movement of workers and the establishment of new enterprises
-Napoleonic Code and French commercial law favored free contracts and an open marketplace but also introduced the advantages of uniform and clear commercial regulations
-Governments were burdened with heavy debts, and retuning soldiers had to find ways to support themselves in a changed economy
-Continental System, which had initially swung production and trade in France’s favor, had collapsed with Napoleon’s fall, bringing down many of the enterprises that it had artificially sustained
C. Patterns of Industrialization
1. Cotton: The Leading Sector
-By 1830, Britain was importing 366 million pounds of raw cotton
-Price of cotton yarn fell to about one-twentieth of what it had been in the 1760s
-Lancashire became the center of a booming cotton cloth industry and Manchester became the cotton capital of the world
2. Railroads
-First successful steam railway line was built in England in 1825
-1830: first passenger line
-Railroads bought huge quantities of coal and of iron for rails
-Carried food and raw materials to cities, manufactured products to consumers, and building materials and fertilizers to the countryside
3. National Differences
-1850s the zone of industrialization had narrowed to include only northeastern France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, western Germany, and northern Italy
-Eastern Europe remained a world of agricultural estates
-Holland built on its tradition of technological skill, its geographical advantages as a trade center accessible by water, and its excellent supplies of coal to become the Continent’s first industrialized nation
-Belgium was the first country to complete a railway network
-Finance became so internationally linked that the Bank of France granted an emergency loan to the Bank of England in 1825
-The domestic banking policies of the United States in response to a financial panic in 1837, led t a wave of crises in the financial centers of Europe
4. State Politics
-Routes, rates, and even the gauge of track became political matters to be settled by parliaments or special commissions
-Tariffs, the dominant issue in British politics in the 1840s, became a critical question in every country
-In 1846, Britain abolished the tariff on imported grain, known as the Corn Laws
-Nation sided with those who favored trade and a lower price for bread rather than with the landowners, who benefited from higher, protected grain prices
-Important to economic development was the role of government in banking and currency
-Parliament required companies to register with the government and publish their annual budget as a guide to investors
-Assurance required new legislation establishing limited liability and encouraging the formation of corporations, and every major country passed such measures
5. The Role of Government
-Services, usually provided by private companies, had to be subsidized, regulated, and given legal protection by the government
-State’s often had full ownership of companies
-Effective government, by subsidizing ports, transportation, and new inventions, by registering patents and sponsoring education, by encouraging investment and enforcing contracts, and by maintaining order and preventing strikes
6. The Crystal Palace
-1851: first international industrial exhibition; specially designed pavilion was built in London, called the Crystal Palace
-Russia displayed primarily raw materials; Austria showed mainly luxurious handicrafts (as did the German Zollverein and the Italian states)
-By 1850 Great Britain was the wealthiest nation in history and over the next 20 years it would continue to increase its lead in goods produced
II. The Social Effects
-Child labor, tyrannical foreman, teeming slums, and unemployment brought new social problems and required new social policies as the growing prosperity and security of the middle class contrasted all the more sharply with the destitution of the urban poor
A. The Division of Labor
-Textile factories required an investment in buildings, machinery, and raw materials far beyond the reach of most weavers and production per worker increased more than a thousand fold with the factory’s efficient organization and power-driven machinery
-Those who came to work in a factory might be former weavers, but were likely to be less skilled laborers (often migrants) driven by poverty
1. Factory Life
-To maintain the discipline that efficient production demanded, foremen used fines for lateness, for slacking off, for flawed work, talking, singing, or whistling
-Law finally passed in England in 1847 that limited the workday to ten hours
-Legislation hesitantly restricted hours and set some stands of hygiene and safety
2. Differentiation
-Sociologists use the term differentiation to describe the spread of specialization among groups and institutions that was a characteristic of the nineteenth century
-Money exchange and legal contracts differentiated economic from personal or social relationships
-Business affairs and governmental functions became more specialized matters determined by calculation or regulation rather than social status
-Britain left many public matters to local governments and private groups
-France: the role of national government increased
-German states tended to combine centralizing bureaucracies with considerable local autonomy
-Increase in professionalization everywhere
B. The Family
1. Traditional Roles
-Law and custom might require equal division of inheritance (as in France), primogeniture, or other more complicated arrangements
-Women usually handled household chores and the smaller animals, the men were responsible for the heavier work, and everyone worked together in critical periods of planting and harvest
2. The Impact of Industrialization
-For artisans as well as peasants, the family was often the unit of production
-Small workshops had long tended to exclude women
-Strain on the family in the industrial age came rather from the lack of housing, the conditions work, and the need for cash, which was compounded by the risk of unemployment
-Socialist: Friederich Engels
-Yet among workers, too, the family survived and the home remained a special place expected to provide protection for small children, a haven for wage earners, and temporary shelter for relatives come to see a job
3. Middle Class Women
-The fact than women worked for pay may also have slowly lessened their domestic subordination
-Women were as important as and frequently more visible than men in operating small shops
-Contempory French historian: Jules Michelet
-Victorian England gentlemen met in their clubs or withdrew from their ladies after dinner
4. Moral Seriousness
-Motherhood was treated as an honored occupation, fondly depicted in novels and new women’s magazines like the Parisian Journal des Femmes of 1832
-Age of distrust of sexual passion
-1818: Thomas Bowdler produced his Family Shakespeare that was more “appropriate” (lacked language or sexual connotations)
-Waltz was denounced in the Ladies Pocket Book of Etiquette in 1840
-Conventional
-Prudery was an effort to bend society to the self-discipline on which morality was thought to rest
I. Economic Transformations
A. The Second Industrial Revolution
1. New Technologies
-Thomas Edison’s incandescent light bulb, developed in the 1870s, was quickly followed by central power stations to distribute power over a wide area, including public lighting in New York and London in 1882 and in Berlin a few years later
-Steam turbine, show in the 1880s to be more efficient than the steam engine, was soon widely employed in ships and factories fueled by oil as well as coal
-1900 the manufacture of generators, cables, and motors were an important new industry in itself and allowed greater and cheaper production in other fields
-Telephone was invented in 1876 and became a business necessity, establishing private convenience within a few decades
-New chemical processes and synthetics led to improved products ranging from dyes, textiles, and paints to fertilizers and explosives
-Many new products in the consumer market responded to the growing purchasing power of the masses
-The automobile in the 1890s, the airplane in the 1900s and the radio a decade later were all greeted with enthusiasm and heightened mass expectation that technological progress would continue to improve every day life
-The Bessemer converter developed in the 1860s permitted far higher temperatures in smelter furnaces, and subsequent discoveries made it profitable to use lower-grade ores
-British, German, and French maritime shipping depended on faster and larger steamships
2. Germany’s Economic Growth
-Germany roads provided excellent communications; its famous educational system produced ample numbers of the administrators and engineers the commercial sector now created
-German factories employed the latest and most efficient equipment obtaining the necessary capital through a modern banking structure
-Plants were far bigger than anyone else’s and firms engaged in the various stages of production often combined in huge cartels that dominated an entire sector of industry, from raw material to finished product
3. Old Industrial Economies
-British decline was because plants and equipment were old and owners hesitated to undertake the cost of modernizing or replacing them
-Well-established firms often made it hard for new companies to get a start
-Without technical secondary schools like those of Germany and France, English schooling remained weak in technical subjects and provided opportunity for social mobility than on the Continent
4. The Spread of Industrialization
-Industrialization no longer depended so directly on the possession of critical resources like coal and iron ore but could be accomplished with foreign investment and imported technology
5. Agriculture
-Percentage of the population that made its living in agriculture continued to decline
-In France, the Netherlands, and Sweden agriculture continued to play a larger role in the economy
-Wider use of machinery and chemical fertilizers increased the capital investment required for farming, and improved transportation intensified international competition
-Britain now imported almost all its grain
-In the face of recurrent agriculture crises, the most common response was protective tariffs, which were raised in France, Germany, Austria, Russia, Italy, and Spain
-New tariffs were soon extended to manufacture goods as well, reversing the trend toward liberal policies that had favored free trade from the 1830s to the 1870s
6. The Long Depression
-1870s to 1896, prices, interests rates, and profits fell with far reaching effects
-One part of the economy soared while another declined
-Handicraft industries were forced out of business, as well as numerous smaller and less efficient industrial firms
-Great boom in railroad building ended, and governments had to save socially or politically important lines deserted by bankrupt companies
-Many industrialists welcomed the support governments could give through tariffs, state spending, and colonial policies
-Economic life centered on great factories owned by large corporations (and closely tied to banks and government) that employed hundreds or ever thousands of workers who, in turn, increasingly organized into industrial labor unions
B. Urbanization and Demographic Change
1. The Demographic Transition: Declining Rates of Mortality and Fertility
-Population increased because mortality rates were falling still more rapidly
-This pattern of declining birthrate accompanied by a more rapidly falling mortality rate, which is called the demographic transition
-Death rates initially declined because of lower infant mortality rates, a result of improved sanitation, better diet, and the virtual elimination of diseases such as cholera and typhus
II. Understandings of Nature and Society
A. The Conquests of Science
1. Biology: The Darwinian Revolution
-Darwin’s “On the Origin of Species” published in 1859
-He first formulated of his concept of natural selection in 1838, but not until Alfred R. Wallace independently developed a similar theory could Darwin be persuaded to publish his findings
-Darwin established that the variety of species is potentially infinite, rejecting the classical and Christian ideas of immutable forms in nature, and argued that there is an almost constant modification of species, each tested in the universal struggle for existence
-Evidence for evolution but described its mechanism: only those well adapted to their environment survived to reproduce, as their progeny would after them
2. Medicine
-1860s the discoveries of Louis Pasteur in France led to the techniques for destroying germs called pasteurization which were of crucial importance to the wine, dairy, and silk industries
-Pasteur also developed a preventive vaccine against rabies
-In England, Joseph Lister discovered that germs could be killed by carbolic acid, and the application of that knowledge made surgery a reasonable remedy rather than a desperate gamble
-Robert Koch in Germany showed that different diseases were caused by distinct microbes, discovered the microorganism responsible for tuberculosis, and opened the way to new techniques in bacteriology and in the battle against communicable disease
3. Physics and Chemistry
-The fundamental generalization of chemistry are contained in the periodic law and periodic table published by Dmitry Mendeleev in 1869
-Thermodynamics the study of the relationship between heat and mechanical energy, became the core of nineteenth-century physics
-Two fundamental laws of thermodynamics
One states the principle o the conservation of energy: energy can be transformed into heat or work but can be neither created nor destroyed, and heat or work can be transformed into energy
-Other law declares that any closed physical system tends towards equilibrium, a system in which heat becomes uniformly distributed and which therefore cannot be used to produce work
-Study of magnetism was the work of Michael Faraday
-1830s and 1840s realized than tines of magnetic force are analogous to gravity and that magnetic fields induce electric currents, allowing for creation of the electric generator
-1873, James Clerk Maxwell published equations that described the behavior of electricity, magnetism, and light in terms of a single, universal system
-Thermodynamics led to the development of more efficient sources of power